EMPIRICISM

Empiricism is the epistemological position that all knowledge derives from sense experience, opposing rationalism's emphasis on innate ideas and a priori reasoning. British empiricists—Locke, Berkeley, Hume—systematically developed this view: the mind at birth is a "blank slate" (tabula rasa) upon which experience writes. Simple ideas come directly from sensation or reflection; complex ideas combine simple ones. Locke distinguished primary qualities (shape, motion) inherent in objects from secondary qualities (colour, taste) depending on perception. Berkeley's idealism radically concluded that only minds and ideas exist. Hume pushed empiricism to sceptical conclusions: causation is merely constant conjunction observed through habit, not logical necessity; induction cannot be rationally justified.

Ancient roots in Aristotle's emphasis on sense experience. Systematic empiricism emerged in 17th-18th century Britain opposing Continental rationalism. John Locke's "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1689) founded modern empiricism. George Berkeley's idealist empiricism followed (1710). David Hume radicalised empiricism toward scepticism (1739-1740). Logical positivism (1920s-1930s) attempted rigorous empiricist programme.

Aristotle (ancient precursor), John Locke (founder of modern empiricism), George Berkeley (idealist empiricism), David Hume (radical empiricism), John Stuart Mill (inductive methods), logical positivists: Rudolf Carnap, A.J. Ayer, W.V.O. Quine (naturalised epistemology).

All knowledge derives from experience. Mind as blank slate (tabula rasa). Rejection of innate ideas. Distinction between primary and secondary qualities. Ideas traced to sensory origins. Scepticism about metaphysical speculation beyond experience. Verification principle for meaningful statements. Inductive reasoning from particular observations.

Founded modern scientific method's empirical emphasis. Shaped logical positivism and analytic philosophy. Influenced philosophy of science and scientific realism. Contributed to naturalised epistemology. Hume's scepticism influenced Kant's critical philosophy. Continues central to debates about a priori knowledge, scientific methodology, and limits of empirical inquiry.